2025–26 Myanmar general election
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315 of the 440 seats in the Pyithu Hluttaw 221 seats needed for a majority161 of the 224 seats in the Amyotha Hluttaw 113 seats needed for a majority | ||||||||||||||||
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 Myanmar portal |
Myanmar's military junta is planning to hold a general election for elected seats in the Amyotha Hluttaw and the Pyithu Hluttaw of the Assembly of the Union, currently dissolved, beginning on 28 December 2025. The election would be the first after the 2021 military coup d'état. Though military ruler Min Aung Hlaing initially promised to hold the election by August 2023, the military repeatedly delayed the election in the face of increasing violence.[3][4][5][6]
Following the coup, the military ruled the country under a state of emergency, initially declared by Acting President Myint Swe for one year and extended seven times by six-month periods, which expired on 31 July 2025.[7] The constitution requires elections be held within six months of the end of the state of emergency.[8] Min Aung Hlaing provided different time frames for the election three times before the December date was confirmed. This timeline has been reaffirmed despite the 2025 Myanmar earthquake. The election is expected to be a sham process intended to legitimize continued military rule. A census that will be used for the election was conducted in October 2024.
In January 2023, the military enacted a new electoral law tightening the requirements for party registration, banning the participation of people convicted of a crime including Aung San Suu Kyi and Win Myint, and switching from a first-past-the-post to a proportional system for the Amyotha Hluttaw election.[9] Analysts see the changes as intended to improve the electoral performance of the military proxy Union Solidarity and Development Party, which performed poorly in the free and fair 2020 election. Most opposition to the USDP will be seriously weakened under the new rules. Added to the previously existing 25% reserved seats to the military, the switch to proportional representation would allow it to govern with just over a third of the popular vote.[10][11][12] The National League for Democracy, which was removed from power in the coup, announced in February 2023 that it would not register under the new law, and was declared dissolved by the election commission the following month.[13][14] The second-largest opposition party, the Shan Nationalities League for Democracy, similarly announced it would not participate in the election.[15][16]
Background
[edit]For most of its independent history, Myanmar, formerly known as Burma, has been ruled by Tatmadaw. Initially, under Ne Win and his Burma Socialist Programme Party, followed by a military junta. Myanmar entered a semi-democratic state in the early 2010s, which culminated in the 2015 elections, in which democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi was elected State Counsellor and her party, the National League for Democracy, won a resounding victory.[17]
2020 election performance
[edit]Min Aung Hlaing openly questioned the validity of the 2020 election on the eve of the November election.[18] After casting his ballot, he vowed to accept the election results.[19] The Tatmadaw (military)-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party lost more seats in both chambers of the national legislature against the NLD, which won another landslide victory in the 2020 general elections. Election results were regarded as credible by both domestic and foreign observers, who found no significant anomalies.[20][21]
Nonetheless, the military claimed the vote was fraudulent, citing 8.6 million irregularities in voter lists.[22] Unable to support the military's claims, the Union Election Commission dismissed the military's fraud accusations on 28 January 2021.[22]
2021 military coup
[edit]The military initiated a coup on 1 February 2021. Suu Kyi, President, Win Myint, and other important people were taken into custody. After assuming power, Senior General Min Aung Hlaing established a junta known as the State Administration Council (SAC). A one-year state of emergency was proclaimed, and Myint Swe was named interim president. With the ultimate objective of holding "a free and fair multiparty democracy election," the SAC unveiled a five-point roadmap in late February.[23]
Aung San Suu Kyi received a number of frivolous charges, including breaching emergency COVID-19 laws, illegally importing and using walkie-talkies, violating the National Disaster Law,[24] violating communications laws, inciting public unrest, and violating the official secrets act.[25][26] On 6 December 2021, she was sentenced to four years in prison, but Min Aung Hlaing commuted her sentence to two years. Her conviction complicates her ability to hold public office.[27]
On 1 August 2021, Min Aung Hlaing formed a caretaker government, and declared himself Prime Minister, whilst remaining the Chairman of the SAC.[28]
The Tatmadaw originally promised to hold the elections when the state of emergency expired on 1 February 2022, but pushed back the elections first to 2023, and then delayed them indefinitely.
Dissolution of the NLD
[edit]On 21 May 2021, the junta-appointed Union Election Commission announced plans to permanently dissolve the National League for Democracy.[29] NLD offices were occupied and raided by police authorities, starting on 2 February.[30] Documents, computers and laptops were forcibly seized, and the NLD called these raids unlawful.[30] On 9 February, police raided the NLD headquarters in Yangon.[31] Aung San Suu Kyi has commented on the possibility of her party's forced dissolution saying, "Our party grew out of the people so it will exist as long as people support it."[32]
In January 2022, the junta reversed its plan to dissolve the NLD, with spokesman Zaw Min Tun saying that the NLD will decide whether to stand in the 2023 election.[33] In February 2023, the NLD announced it would not re-register as a political party under a strict new electoral law enacted by the junta the previous month.[13] The electoral commission automatically disbanded NLD, along with 39 other parties, on 28 March 2023.[34]
Electoral system
[edit]
Prior to now, Myanmar only used the first-past-the-post system, which allows a candidate to win an election with a plurality of votes in a constituency. During a press conference in Naypyidaw, on 16 June 2022, Khin Maung Oo, a member of the Union Election Commission, announced that the nation would switch to a proportional representation system for the upcoming election.[35]
Existing system
[edit]In the existing system, the national legislature, the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw consists of a total of 498 seats elected in single-member constituencies, and 166 seats reserved for military appointees.
The Pyithu Hluttaw, or House of Representatives, is elected every five years. It is the lower house. It has 440 MPs, 330 of which are elected in single-member constituencies, one for each township. A further 110 members (one quarter) are appointed by the Tatmadaw.
The Amyotha Hluttaw, or House of Nationalities, is elected every five years. It is the upper house. It has 224 MPs, 168 of which are elected in single-member constituencies, 12 in each state or region. A further 56 members (one quarter) are appointed by the Tatmadaw.
In Myanmar, it is not uncommon for elections to be cancelled partially or completely in some constituencies due to insurrection.
Following the inauguration of the new lawmakers, the President and the two Vice-Presidents of Myanmar are chosen by the Presidential Electoral College, which is composed of MPs from three committees: one consisting of elected members from each house of the Assembly of the Union and one consisting of members appointed by the military. After one candidate has been recommended by each committee, the Assembly votes. Depending on their total number of votes, the candidates are elected to the following positions: President, First Vice-President, and Second Vice-President.
People married to a non-Burmese citizen and/or who have children without Burmese citizenship are barred from being elected to any presidential position. This requirement has been criticised by some as being an attempt to disqualify Suu Kyi. Her late husband was a British citizen, so she was ineligible to be President. Instead, she became State Counsellor, and President Win Myint was seen as her puppet.
Revisions to the existing system
[edit]In December 2021, the junta-appointed Union Electoral Commission convened with 60 political parties on the electoral system. The cohort determined that it would be advisable to switch to a system of party-list proportional representation (PR). The largest remainder method will be used, and the lists will be closed, although there may be a switch to open lists "when the level of education of the electorate and the political tide rises". The townships will be merged into districts for constituencies.[36][37]
Observers and anti-junta factions have criticised the change in electoral system for politically motivated, aimed at increasing the junta's electoral performance.[38][39][40] In 2014, the Amyotha Hluttaw had previously approved a switch to the PR system, but it was not pursued further by the Pyithu Hluttaw for being "unconstitutional."[40] The PR system also implies larger multi-member constituencies, which could enable the military to avoid having to cancel elections in insecure regions.[41]
On 26 January 2023, the military junta issued the Political Parties Registration Law to force political parties to re-register within 60 days, or face automatic dissolution.[41] The law also introduced new financial (possessing at least US$35,000 (equivalent to $36,120 in 2024) in funds), party membership (having 100,000 members, an increase from 1,000), and logistical requirements (contesting half of all constituencies and operating party offices in half of all townships), effectively aimed at limiting electoral participation to few national parties like the USDP.[41] The NLD, SNLD, and 38 other parties were disbanded by the law on 28 March.[42]
| System method | Pyithu Hluttaw | Amyotha Hluttaw | The State and Region Hluttaws | The ethnic constituencies for State and Region Hluttaws |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| FPTP | 330 | 84 | 322 | 29 |
| PR | — | 26 | 42 | — |
| Total | 330 (75%) | 110 (74,3%) | 364 (74,6%) | 29 |
| Military appointed | 110 (25%) | ~38 (25,7%) | ~124 (25,4%) | — |
| Total | 440 | ~148 | ~488 |
Conduct
[edit]The election is expected by independent analysts and foreign bodies, including those at the United Nations, Human Rights Watch, and the US State Department, to be neither free nor fair, and rather a sham process intended to legitimise further military rule.[41][43][44]
The Union Election Commission (UEC) organises and oversees in Myanmar. During the 2021 coup, Hla Thein, the civilian-appointed UEC chair was arrested by military authorities, and subsequently sentenced to prison.[45] The military junta replaced him with Thein Soe, a former military general who had previously overseen the 2010 Myanmar general election.[46] Some have expressed concerns about the Tatmadaw's willingness to hold free and fair elections.
Although the past three elections in Myanmar have been semi-free,[47] there have been concerns over such things as irregularities in voter lists, misinformation, fake news, and the vilification of Burmese Muslims. In addition, under the military-designed 2008 Constitution, the military is effectively guaranteed one vice presidency, and a quarter of the seats in both chambers of the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, veto power over voter-elected legislators, as well as a third of the seats in all state and regional Hluttaws, and key ministries.[48]
Some members of the NLD dominated Pyidaungsu Hluttaw elected in 2020 have formed an anti-cabinet known as the National Unity Government of Myanmar. The NUG claims to be the legitimate government of Myanmar, and the junta and the NUG consider each other terrorist groups.[49] The coup has since escalated into a Myanmar civil war (2021–present) between the Armed Forces, and the NUG's People's Defence Force and ethnic armed organisations (EAOs), resulting in thousands of military and civilian casualties, and the displacement of an additional 1.7 million people as of November 2022[update].[50][51][52][53] This, along with ongoing ethnic conflicts, means the vote will likely be cancelled in some constituencies, and may not be secure in others.
The planned election may trigger an escalation in violence, due to widespread public opposition.[41] Since January 2023, resistance forces have attacked and killed individuals associated with the planned election, including local administrators gathering data for voter lists.[41] On 29 January, the NUG declared that individuals cooperating with the election would be deemed "accomplices of high treason."[41] Major EAOs, including the Chin National Front, Karenni National Progressive Party, Karen National Union, Kachin Independence Organisation, and the Ta-ang National Liberation Army, have also criticised the planned election.[41]
According to state media, India will send teams to monitor the election.[54]
At least 6 of the likely USDP candidates are currently-serving Tatmadaw lieutenant-generals.[55]
On 26 November 2025, 8,865 people were pardoned or had their sentence commuted by the SSPC junta; 3,085 of which were convicted under the Section 505A "fake news" penal code. According to junta spokesperson,Zaw Min Tun, these commutations would allow eligible voters to participate "freely and fairly."[56]
Timing
[edit]The election date has not been officially announced. The Constitution requires that elections be held within six months of the end of a declared state of emergency, which the military has extended repeatedly since the 2021 coup.[41]
In 2021, Min Aung Hlaing initially promised an election by August 2023, saying one would be held "without fail".[3] This was the latest date that would have been allowed under the constitutional rule stating two six month extensions of the state of emergency are "normally" allowed.[41] However, the election was not held and the state of emergency was repeatedly extended past the two-extension limit.[6][41] In 2024, Min Aung Hlaing announced that a census would be held between 1 and 15 October and promised to hold the election in 2025.[57][58] The census began as scheduled on 1 October.[59] During a visit in Belarus on 8 March 2025, Min Aung Hlaing announced that the election will be conducted around December 2025 or January 2026.[60] On 26 March, state media reported that at a meeting of the State Administration Council, Min Aung Hlaing set a plan for the election to be held either in the last two weeks of December or in the first two weeks of January. On 27 March, in a speech for Armed Forces Day, Min Aung Hlaing appeared to narrow the date to December.[61][62] Despite the highly destabilising 2025 Myanmar earthquake that occurred the next day, Min Aung Hlaing said on 3 April that the timeline for the election would not change.[63]
In addition to ongoing security concerns, the election date may have also been delayed to forestall infighting within the Burmese military leadership around succession planning. It remains unclear if Min Aung Hlaing will remain commander-in-chief or seek the presidency, and whether he can appoint a loyal candidate to either role, since the Constitution does not permit him to assume both.[41]
On 18 August 2025, the UEC announced that the election would be held in stages beginning on 28 December 2025.[64]
On 11 September 2025, an official from the UEC announced that the results will be announced by the end of January 2026.[65]
Phase 1
[edit]On 21 August, the UEC announced designated phase one constitutuencies consisting of 102 townships to be held on 28 December. 121 constituencies, including 56 townships will be excluded.[66][67]
| States/Region | Townships |
|---|---|
| Ayeyarwady | 8 |
| Bago | 8 |
| Chin | 2 |
| Kachin | 6 |
| Kayah | 2 |
| Kayin | 3 |
| Magway | 9 |
| Mandalay | 8 |
| Mon | 5 |
| Rakhine | 3 |
| Sagaing | 12 |
| Shan | 12 |
| Tanintharyi | 4 |
| Yangon | 12 |
| Naypyidaw (Capital) | 8 |
| Total | 102 |
Phase 2
[edit]On 29 October, the UEC announced designated phase two constitutuencies consisting of 100 townships to be held on 11 January 2026.[68]
| States/Region | Townships |
|---|---|
| Ayeyarwady | 9 |
| Bago | 12 |
| Kachin | 3 |
| Karen | 2 |
| Karenni | 2 |
| Magwe | 11 |
| Mandalay | 9 |
| Mon | 5 |
| Sagaing | 11 |
| Shan | 17 |
| Tanintharyi | 3 |
| Yangon | 16 |
| Total | 100 |
Reactions
[edit]In March 2023, the governments of the United States, European Union, United Kingdom, Japan, France, Germany, and Australia strongly condemned the military junta's dissolution of the NLD and other political parties. The US and Germany stated they expect the election will not be free and fair.[69] The German government posited that the junta's moves threaten to escalate violence in the country, and further destabilise the country.[69] Japan's ministry of foreign affairs called for the release of all NLD officials, and noted the NLD's exclusion will hamper attempts to peacefully improve the country's political situation.[69][70] Australia's Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade characterised the junta's moves as a "further narrowing of political space in Myanmar." The European Union reiterated its support for ASEAN's Five-Point Consensus.[71] In early 2025, Thet Thet Khine, leader of the People's Pioneer Party (PPP), held a party conference ahead of Myanmar’s scheduled general election. During the event, she voiced strong support for the electoral process under the military-appointed Union Election Commission, stating controversially:
"I absolutely believe that this general election will be a free and fair selection of a new presidency, as it will be organized by the military. You may think a general election without the NLD is not inclusive, but it is inclusive for sure."
— Thet Thet Khine
Political parties
[edit]The table below lists parties that managed to elect representatives to the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw in 2020 that have registered to contest the next election.[72][13] Most parties in Myanmar represent one of the country's many ethnic minorities.
| Name | Ideology | Leader | 2020 result (of elected seats) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pyithu | Amyotha | ||||||
| USDP | Union Solidarity and Development Party ပြည်ထောင်စုကြံ့ခိုင်ရေးနှင့် ဖွံ့ဖြိုးရေးပါတီ |
Pro-Tatmadaw Burmese nationalism[73] Social conservatism[74] |
Khin Yi | 26 / 330
|
7 / 168
| ||
| PNO | Pa-O National Organisation ပအိုဝ်း အမျိုးသား အဖွဲ့ချုပ် |
Pa'O interests | Aung Kham Hti | 3 / 330
|
1 / 168
| ||
| MUP | Mon Unity Party မွန်ညီညွတ်ရေးပါတီ |
Mon interests | Han Shwe | 2 / 330
|
3 / 168
| ||
| KSPP | Kachin State People's Party ကချင်ပြည်နယ်ပြည်သူ့ပါတီ |
Kachin regionalism | n/a | 1 / 330
|
0 / 168
| ||
| AFP | Arakan Front Party ရခိုင့်ဦးဆောင်ပါတီ |
Arakanese self-determination | Aye Maung | 1 / 330
|
0 / 168
| ||
| RNP | Rakhine Nationalities Party ရခိုင်တိုင်းရင်းသားများပါတီ[75] |
Arakanese self-determination | Ba Shein | 1 / 330
|
0 / 168
| ||
| WNP | Wa National Party ‘ဝ’အမျိုးသားပါတီ |
Wa interests | Nyi Palot | 1 / 330
|
0 / 168
| ||
| ZCD | Zomi Congress for Democracy ဇိုမီး ဒီမိုကရေစီအဖွဲ့ချုပ် |
Zomi interests Liberal democracy |
Chin Sian Thang | 1 / 330
|
0 / 168
| ||
| NDP | New Democracy Party ဒီမိုကရေစီပါတီသစ် |
Liberal democracy Kachin regionalism |
San Khaung | 0 / 330
|
1 / 168
| ||
| 2020 total results | 39 / 330 (11.9% of seats) |
16 / 168 (9.5% of seats) | |||||
The table below lists political parties that were dissolved by the junta, including the NLD and SNLD, that won 88% of the national parliamentary seats in the 2020 election.[76]
| Name | Ideology | Leader | 2020 result (of elected seats) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pyithu | Amyotha | ||||||
| NLD | National League for Democracy အမျိုးသား ဒီမိုကရေစီ အဖွဲ့ချုပ် |
Liberalism | Aung San Suu Kyi | 258 / 330
|
138 / 168
| ||
| SNLD | Shan Nationalities League for Democracy ရှမ်းတိုင်းရင်းသားများ ဒီမိုကရေစီ အဖွဲ့ချုပ် |
Shan interests | Hkun Htun Oo | 13 / 330
|
2 / 168
| ||
| ANP | Arakan National Party ရခိုင်အမျိုးသားပါတီ |
Rakhine nationalism | Thar Tun Hla | 4 / 330
|
4 / 168
| ||
| TNP | Ta'ang National Party တအာင်းအမျိုးသားပါတီ |
Ta'ang interests | Aik Mone | 3 / 330
|
2 / 168
| ||
| KySDP | Kayah State Democratic Party ကယားပြည်နယ်ဒီမိုကရေစီပါတီ |
Karenni interests | Po Re | 2 / 330
|
3 / 168
| ||
| 2020 total results | 276 / 330 (83.6% of seats) |
145 / 168 (86.3% of seats) | |||||
57 parties registered for participation in the election. 8 of those parties will compete nationally while the rest will compete regionally. [77] Nationally competing parties include the People's Pioneer Party, the National Unity Party, the Myanmar Farmers Development Party, the People's Party, the Shan and Ethnic Democratic Party, the Women’s Party (Mon), and the Democratic Party of National Politics.[78]
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